Science of Happiness

Introduction to the Science of Happiness

Over the last twenty years we have seen a dramatic upsurge in scientific studies aimed at discovering the causes of “subjective well being” or to put it simply, discovering what makes happy people happy. Happiness, like any psychological state, is not an easy thing to measure, and so the results of these studies are not perfectly reliable. Yet we are slowly getting a clearer picture of what we can do to find greater happiness and fulfillment. Many of the scientific studies point to certain key areas that can strongly impact our pursuit of happiness. Let’s take a look at the areas of consensus that are emerging through the new science of happiness.

Each “area of consensus” has three sections:

1) A “top line.” This is the take-home message; a brief paragraph describing how we can apply the results of the scientific studies to our own lives.

2) A more detailed review on areas of agreement, as well as remarks on valuable or intriguing insights of particular studies.

3) A bibliography of key studies, as well as related studies.

Note: These pages will be frequently updated as we incorporate more studies on the science of happiness.

1. Communicating

The top line: People who have one or more close friendships appear to be happier. It doesn’t seem to matter if we have a large network of close relationships or not. What seems to make a difference is if and how often we cooperate in activities and share our personal feelings with a friend or relative. Simply put, it’s not the quantity of our relationships, but the quality that matters.

In one study people were asked on random occasions about their mood. They were found to be happiest with their friends, followed by family members, and least happy if they were alone (Larson).

Another study constructed a scale of cooperativeness, ie how willing people were to constructively engage in activities with others. This study showed that the cooperativeness of an individual was a predictor of their happiness, though it did not conclusively show if their cooperation resulted in happiness or the other way around (Lu).

A study on the quality of relationships found that to avoid loneliness people needed only one close relationship coupled with a network of other relationships. To form a close relationship required a growing amount of “self-disclosure,” or a willingness to reveal ones personal issues and feelings, and without it people with friends would still be lonely (Weiss). A similar study found that some students who had many friends with whom they often spent time were still plagued by loneliness, and this seemed to be related to their tendency to talk about impersonal topics such as sports and pop music instead of their personal life (Weeler).

Key studies:

Larson, R.W. (1990). “The solitary side of life: An examination of the time people spend alone from childhood to old age.” Developmental Review, 10, 155-183.

Lu, L., & Argyle, M. (1992). “Happiness and cooperation.” Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1019-1030.

Weiss, R.S. (1973). Loneliness: The Experience of Emotional and Social Isolation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Weeler, L., Reis, H., & Nezlek, J. (1983). “Loneliness, social interaction and social roles.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45. 943-953.

Further Studies:

Recent Review on Impact of Friendship in New York Times

Campbell, Angus., Converse, Phillip E., & Rodgers, Willard L. (1976). The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations, and Satisfactions. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Wood, W., Rhodes, N., & Whelan, M. (1989). “Sex differences in positive well-being: A consideration of emotional style and marital status.” Psychological Bulletin, 106, 249-26.

Rodgers, W.L. and Bachman, J.G. (1988). The Subjective Well-Being of Young Adults: Trends and Relationships (Research Report Series/Institute for Social Research). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

2. Caring

The top line: People who volunteer or simply take a little extra time to assist and care for others around them seem to be happier. “Caring” can be as simple as reaching out to a workmate or classmate who looks lonely or is struggling with an issue. Or it can be something more organized, such as volunteering to care for the homeless or disabled. Studies show that people who reach out like this feel better about themselves, and experience a stronger sense of “belonging,” usefulness and purpose.

Volunteering seems to have the most significant impact. One large-scale study compared the psychology of elderly volunteers with non-volunteers and found that retirees older than 65 who volunteered rated significantly higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and had fewer symptoms of depression (Hunter). In the same study a group of young volunteers did not experience more benefit than non-volunteers. The authors of the study raise the possibility that the younger group might not have experienced the same sort of satisfaction because they were not as self-motivated as the older group. In oter words many of these students may have been encouraged to volunteer by their schools or did so to boost their chances of getting into college.

A well-known study on the topic “It’s good to be good” argues that a strong link exists between the well-being and happiness of people on the one hand, and the compassion they express in their attitudes and actions, as long as they do not have too many caring responsibilities to handle (Post).

Key Studies:

Post, Stephen G. (2005). “Altruism and Happiness: It’s Good to Be Good.” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12:2, 66–77.

Hunter, K. I., & Linn, M.W. (1980–1981). International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 12, 205–213.

Midlarsky, E., & Kahana, E. (1994). Altruism in Later Life (SAGE Library of Social Research). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Musick, M. A., & Wilson, J. (2003). “Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups.” Social Science & Medicine, 56, 259–269.

Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., & McGue, M. (2001). “Altruism and antisocial behavior: Independent tendencies, unique personality correlates, distinct etiologies.” Psychological Science, 12, 397–402.

Further Studies:

Campbell, W.K., Sedikedes, C., & Bosson, J. (1994). “Romatic involvement, self discrepancy and psychological well-being: a preliminary investigation.” Personal Relationship, 1, 399-404.

Murray, S.L., & Holmes, J.G. (1997). “A leap of faith? Positive illusions in romantic relationships.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 586-604.

3. Exercising

The top line: Regular exercise has a significant effect on our mood, especially in relieving depression. For many people with mild to moderate depression, working out at least three times a week, especially for more than a few months, appears to lift them out of the blues. The longer they continue to do this, the greater the impact.

Have you ever noticed that you feel great after going for a run? Do you love working out or playing sports on a regular basis? It turns out that you are not alone, and that exercise has a big effect on mood and mental well-being.

While it might be no surprise that exercise can improve your mood, a good deal of scientific research has been done to discover the possible reasons for this. Some researchers argue that exercise may act as a diversion from negative thoughts, and the mastery of a new skill may be important. Some studies indicate that social contact between people who are working out or involved in sports may be an important source of satisfaction as well. Still others think that physical activity causes the brain to release chemicals called endorphins that cause one to feel good after exercising.

Most of the researchers looking at exercise and mood compared groups of people who were exercising to those who were not. They then looked to see if those who were exercising felt better in the short term. Some researchers compared exercising to treatments for depression such as antidepressant medications or cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Key Studies:

Blumenthal J.A., Babyak M.A., Moore K.A., Craighead W.E., Herman S., Khatri P., et al. “Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression.” Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 2349-2356.

Veale D., Le Fevre K., Pantelis C., de Souza V., Mann A. “Aerobic exercise in the adjunctive treatment of depression: a randomised controlled trial.” J R Soc Med 1992; 85: 541-544.

Klein M.H., Greist J.H., Gurman R.A., Neimeyer R.A., Lesser D.P., Bushnell N.J., et al. “A comparative outcome study of group psychotherapy vs. exercise treatments for depression.” Int J Ment Health 1985; 13: 148-177.

Singh N.A., Clements K.M., Fiatarone M.A. “A randomized controlled trial of progressive resistance training in depressed elders.” J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1997; 52(1): M27-M35.

Further Studies:

American Academy of Physical Education (1984). Helen M. Eckert Ed. Exercise and Health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Biddle, S., & Mutrie, N. (1991). Psychology of Physical Activity and Exercise. London: Springer-Verlag.

Crews, D.J., & Landers, D.M. (1987). “A meta-analytic review of aerobic fitness and reactivity to psychosocial stressors.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19(5,Suppl.), S114-S120.

4. Getting in the Flow

The top line: If we are deeply involved in trying to reach a goal, or an activity that is challenging but well suited to our skills, we experience a joyful state called “flow.” One may find still greater happiness experiencing “flow” in working towards long-term, meaningful goals.

Do you ever find yourself so completely immersed in what you’re doing that you lose track of time? All of a sudden you look up at the clock and realize that hours have passed and you missed dinner time? Think a minute about this. When does this loss of time and total engagement typically occur for you? This could apply to a martial artist completely absorbed in perfecting a flying kick, or a violinist fiercely concentrating on a complex symphony. One may find still greater happiness working towards long-term, meaningful goals. This is perhaps one reason why religious people with a sense of “mission” seem comparatively happier. Viktor Frankl, who survived a Nazi concentration camp, once said “What man actually needs is not a tensionless state but rather the striving and struggling for some goal worthy of him.” A growing body of scientific evidence seems to support this.
 
This loss of self-consciousness that happens when you are completely absorbed in an activity – intellectual, social, or physical – is described in contemporary psychology as a state of Flow. In order for a Flow state to occur, you must see the activity as voluntary, enjoyable (intrinsically motivating), and it must require skill and be challenging (but not too challenging) with clear goals towards success. You must feel as though you have control and receive immediate feedback with room for growth. Interestingly, a Flow state is characterized by the absence of emotion – a complete loss of self-consciousness – however, in retrospect, the Flow activity may be described as enjoyable and even exhilarating!

Scientists such as Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi have studied the impact of Flow states on human happiness, productivity and success. In one study 250 high-flow and low-flow teenagers were asked to report on their feelings and activities at regular intervals. The high-flow teenagers on average reported more time spent on hobbies, sports and homework. The high-flow teenagers also measured higher levels of self-esteem and engagement. Interestingly, however, the high-flow teenagers self-reported lower levels of fun than the low-flow teenagers. Apparently, high-flow teenagers see their low-flow peers as experiencing more fun engaging in low-flow activities, such as video games, TV or socializing. However, the high-flow kids end up having greater long term happiness as well as success in school, social relationships and careers.

If Flow has such incredible benefits to our happiness, relationships and success, then why do we habitually choose low-flow activities? Why do we, in the moment, choose another episode of American Idol over a game of pickup basketball? One hypothesis is that the high-flow activities require more initial motivation because they do require skill and concentration. In other words, high-flow activities are work! But work that pays off. And unfortunately low-flow activities, such as watching TV, often contribute to low levels of depression.

Key Studies:

Smith, L., and Elliot, C. (2001). Hollow Kids: Recapturing the Soul of a Generation Lost to the Self-Esteem Myth. New York: Forum.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (P.S.). New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classic.

Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005 : Paperback edition of 2002 book which is no longer in print). The concept of flow. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology. (pp. 89-105). New York: Oxford University Press.

Moneta, G.B., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). “The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience.” Journal of Personality, 64, 275-310.

Rathunde, K., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1993). “Undivided interest and the growth of talent: A longitudinal study of adolescents.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 6, 605-628.

Further Studies:

Tait, M., Padgett, M.Y., & Baldwin, T.T. (1989). “Job satisfaction and life satisfaction: a reexamination of the strength of the relationship and gender effects as a function of the date of the study.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 502-507.

5. Religious and Spiritual Engagement

The top line: People follow spiritual paths and join religious organizations for innumerable reasons, including faith, prayer, social support, community service, cultural tradition, friendship, commitment to the community and more. How often do you hear someone say that they committed to a religion or spiritual practice primarily to become happier? Perhaps not often. However, interestingly enough, studies demonstrate a close link between spiritual and religious practice and happiness.
 
Scientists who study this phenomenon hypothesize several possible reasons for a link between religiosity and happiness. Religious organizations provide strong social support from like minded people, providing various opportunities for socializing, community service and making friends. Social engagement is currently recognized as being most strongly linked to happiness.

Spirituality and prayer also provide people with an opportunity to engage in a meditative act. Meditation has been shown to have a strong link with well-being because it calms the body, reduces stress and anxiety, and also supports positive thinking.

Finally, both spirituality and organized religion can help provide people with perspective and hope. By believing in something greater than themselves, it may help them stay positive in times of sadness, and foster resilience.

Generally, religiosity can be defined as one’s relationship with a particular faith tradition or doctrine about a divine other or supernatural power, while spirituality can be defined as “the intrinsic human capacity for self-transcendence, in which the self is embedded in something greater than the self, including the sacred” and which motivates “the search for connectedness, meaning, purpose, and contribution.”1 But these abstract ideas are measured in many different ways, from frequency of church attendance to asking people “how religious are you?” As for mental well-being and happiness, studies look at both negative (i.e. depression) and positive indicators of mental well-being (i.e. self-reported happiness, self esteem, positive relationships with others).

Two recent surveys of the studies (meta-analyses) examine the different definitions and measurements of religiosity/spirituality as well as mental effects. One looks at adults, the other, adolescents, both with different results. A 2003 review of 34 studies with mainly adult populations found that personal devotion measures are most strongly related to mental well-being, while ideological measures showed less strong though positive effects, and institutional measures (i.e. religious service attendance) had the weakest. A 2006 review of 20 studies with adolescent populations (average age 10-20) reported that 90% of these studies show positive findings in the relationships between adolescent religious/spiritual engagement and mental well-being.3 In contrast to the mostly adult-based study, it was institutional involvement that had the largest effect on mental well-being, with ideological and personal devotion measures showing a smaller impact. Scientists suppose that the social and behavioral impact of institutional involvement may be more beneficial to young people, because it provides a sense of order and belonging during a difficult transitional period of their lives. In general, they found that religious and spiritual involvement was more beneficial to older teens’ mental well-being, perhaps because it reflects personal choices rather than imposed parental expectations. They also found that it has more of an impact for males, but are unsure why.

One important point about the studies is that, even though most researchers say they are looking at the “effect” of religion on mental well-being, the vast majority only show that religious and spiritual people report higher levels of happiness and mental well-being. This means that good mental well-being might predispose people to religious involvement or vice versa. To look at whether religiosity/spirituality causes better mental well-being, scientists must study people over a long period of time.

Key Studies:

Wagener, L. M., Furrow, J. L., King, P. E., Leffert, N., & Benson, P. (2003). “Religious involvement and developmental resources in youth.” Review of Religious Research 44:3 , pp. 271-284.

Hackney, C. H., & Sanders, G. S. (2003). “Religiosity and mental: A meta-analysis of recent studies.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 42:1 , pp. 43-55.

Wong, Y. J., Rew, L., & Slaikeu, K. D. (2006). “A Systematic Review of Recent Research on Adolescent Religiosity/Spirituality and Mental Health.” Issues in Mental Health Nursing 27: 2, pp.161-183.

Further Studies:

Inglehart, Ronald (1990). Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Study found “85% of those who said they went to church once a week or more were ‘very satisfied’ with life…” (in Argyle)

Witter, R.A., Stock, W.A., Okun, M.A., & Haring, M.J. (1985). “Religion and subjective well-being in adulthood: a quantitative synthesis.” Review of Religious Research, 26, 332-342.

Veenhoven, R. (1994). Correlates of Happiness. (3 Vols.). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: RISBO, Center for Socio-Cultural Transformation.

Pollner, M. (1989). “Divine relations, social relations, and well-being.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 92-104.

Paloutzian, R.F., & Ellison, C.W. (1982). “Loneliness, spiritual well-being, and the quality of life.” In L.A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy. (pp. 224-237). New York: Wiley.

Emmons, R.A. (1986). “Personal strivings: an approach to personality and subjective well-being.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058-1068.

Argyle, M. (2000). Psychology and Religion : An Introduction. London: Routledge.

Ellison, C.G., Gay, D.A., & Glass, T.A. (1989). “Does religious commitment contribute to individual life satisfaction?” Social Force, 68, 100-123.

Beit-Hallahmi, B., & Argyle, M. (1997). The Psychology of Religious Behaviour, Belief and Experience. London: Routledge.

6. Cultivating Strengths and Virtues

The top line: The work of positive psychologists such as Seligman appears to show that the happiest people are those that have discovered their unique strengths (such as persistence and logic) and virtues (such as humanity and patience), and use those strengths and virtues for a purpose that is greater than their own personal goals. These kinds of people are doing what we have suggested in the section on “caring,” but on top of that they use their unique abilities and gifts to do it.

You may have strengths that are so natural to you that you may not even consider them strengths. Think about an episode in your life when you were at your very best. What qualities enabled you to perform like that?

While an infinite number of talents and strengths exist that humans can possess, Character Strengths and Virtues are ones that humanity morally values. When Martin Seligman and Chris Peterson sought to discover and classify common Character Strengths and Virtues across cultures, they created a classification of core virtues that humans morally value no matter what the cultural, racial and regional differences. Take the VIA Signature Strengths assessment to determine your top five Signature Strengths. (link here)

Current research indicates that you are most likely to value a job, relationship, hobby or institution that aligns with your core signature strengths and allows you to regularly utilize them. In fact, research indicates that using signature strengths in new and consistent ways, and building on your current strengths may more effectively improve wellbeing than trying to improve your weaknesses.

Key Studies:

Bonnano, G.A. (2004). “Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?” American Psychologist, 59, 20-28.

Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2006). “Strengths of character and recovery.” Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 17-26.

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P., (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. New York: Oxford University Press; Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Park, N. (2004a). “Character strengths and positive youth development.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 40 – 54.

Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). “Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths across culture and history.” Review of General Psychology, 9, 203-213.

Buckingham, M., & Clifton, D. (2001). Now, Discover Your Strengths. New York: Free Press.

R. Biswas-Diener (2006) “From the Equator to the Arctic: A Cross-Cultural Study of Strengths and Virtues,” Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, pp.293-310.

Further Studies:

Cantor, N., & Sanderson, C.A. (1999). Life task satisfaction and well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diner, & N. Swarz (Eds.), Understanding Quality of Life (pp. 230-243). New York: Russell Sage.

7. Positive Thinking: Optimism, Savoring, and Gratitude

The top line: If you want to be happy, think happy thoughts first! While it sounds simple and intuitive, optimistic thinking is highly correlated with happiness, though more studies are needed on the cause-effect relationship. Do we become happy because we are optimistic, or do we think optimistic thoughts because we are happy? Optimists are generally more persevering in their goals and activities because they have the confidence, commitment and motivation to overcome challenges. Optimists generally possess higher self-esteem because they believe more in their own capabilities in the present, and the future.
 
Optimism describes your cognitive orientation to the world around you. When you find out you were just admitted to your top college of choice, do you think – “well, of course, I’m brilliant!” or do you think “What a stroke of great luck!”? When you find out you were rejected from your school of choice, do you think, “I just wasn’t smart enough to get in to my top choice” or do you think, “a huge number of people applied from my geographic region this year.” While many people view optimism in a Polyannic sense of blind faith about the future, optimism is really more accurately defined as your attitude towards yourself and how successful you think you will be in the future.

Optimistic people view the same events as challenges and opportunities that pessimists may see as annoyances or frustrations. As a result, The only known downside to optimism is that optimists slightly underestimate risks, which is one of the reasons why professions were pessimism may prove to be more beneficial (such as law) also report higher levels of depression

Martin Seligman’s book Authentic Happiness has an optimism assessment you can take. If you score low, don’t despair! Optimism is not a fixed character trait! You can improve your optimistic outlook on life through your hard word and cognitive discipline. The book Authentic Happiness by Martin Seligman outlines exercises and strategies for improving your optimistic outlook on life.

Video: CBS News item on optimism

Key Studies:

Byrant, F.B. (2003). “Savoring Beliefs Inventory (SBI): A scale for measuring beliefs about savoring.” Journal of Mental Health, 12, 175-196.

Peterson, C., & Vaidya, R.S. (2003). Optimism as virtue and vice. In E.C. Chang & L.J. Sanna (Eds.), Virtue, Vice, and Personality: The Complexity of Behavior. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Lyubomirsky, S., King, L.A., & Diener, E. (2005). “The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?” Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803-855.

M.E.P. Seligman, (2006). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. New York: Free Press.

Maruta. T., Colligan, R., Malinchoc, M., & Offord, K. (2000). “Optimists vs. Pessimists: Survival rate among medical patients over a 30-year period.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 75, 140-143.

Schneider, S.L. (2001). “In Search of realistic optimism.” American Psychologist, 56 (3).

Further Studies:

Apter, M.J (1982). The Experience of Motivation: The Theory of Psychological Reversals. London: Academic Press.

Boyd-Wilson, B.M., Walkey, F.H., McClure, J., & Green, D. E. (2000). “Do we need positive illusions to carry out plans? Illusion and instrumental coping.” Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1141-52.

Caputo, J. L., Rudolph, D.L., & Morgan, D. W. (1998). “Influence of positive events on blood pressure in adolescents.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 115-129.

Chang, E.C., Maydeu-Olivares, A., & D’Zurilla, T.T. (1997). “Optimism and pessimism as partially independent constructs: relationship to positive and negative affectivity and psychological well-being.” Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 433-440.

Compton, W.C. (1992). “Are positive illusions necessary for self-esteem?” Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1343-1344.

Bibliography of General Reviews on Science of Happiness

Ryan, Richard M., and Edward L. Deci. On Happiness and Human Potential: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2001. 52:141–66.